Genetic Engineering Essays (1414 words) - Biotechnology, Genetics

Genetic Engineering Gena Fawley Ethics Doug McKay 1 June, 2000 Genetic Engineering As we begin the twenty first century, many new technological advancements make themselves readily available to us. One such technological advancement is genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is the altering of human genes in order to perfect these genes, or change them completely. This new technology is very controversial, because it deals with things such as altering our own mortality and perhaps creating the ?perfect human race.? Some people however, feel that gene altering is a wonderful new prospect because it may allow us to prevent certain disease, and thus increase our life spans. Also, those that are for genetic engineering, believe that by choosing the genes we wish our children to have we will be able to correct certain birth defect and make everyone happy and healthy. The discovery of the ability to manipulate human genes first came with the development of the Human Genome Project. The Human Genome Project is a worldwide research setup to analyze the structure of human DNA, and also to locate all human genes, which in number are estimated to be as many as one hundred thousand (Intro to the World of Genome). The goal of this project is to locate the genome, or the complete set of instructions for making a human being. It is believed in the future that this process will be helpful in curing diseases. It was out of this project that the idea for gene manipulation arose, and the controversy over whether we, as mere human beings, had the right to manipulate the genes of the human body, to prevent genetic disorders and prolong life (Intro to the World of Genome). Advocates of gene altering feel that this new technology is beneficial to human life for two main reasons. First, these people feel that using the technology of gene altering to ?design their own children? is beneficial because they will be able to perfect their genes and prevent them from being handicap from disease and disorders (Golden). Through the use of gene manipulation, such diseases as Down Syndrome can be prevented. By choosing the genes that their children will have, parents can be sure that their children will not be born with genetic disease, thus the human race will be much healthier. Another reason that supporters of gene manipulation believe that it is a worthwhile technology, is because they feel that in the future, when all of the genomes are discovered that we will be able to cure such diseases as diabetes and cancer. They believe that through use of genetic screening and gene altering that we will not only be able to prevent these disease before birth, but also cure them at a later stage. By adding healthy genes from one organism to the unhealthy genes of another organism, it is believed that this process, called somatic cell therapy, will be able to correct hundreds of genetic disorders, ranging from heart disease to cancer (Frantz). It is believed by those in favor of this technology, that by correcting genes in postnatal (already born) organisms, we might be able to cure such deadly diseases and thus prolong life for the human race. While this may seem to present a bright new future to all of mankind, there are still several protests to this new technology. Many people feel that by manipulating genes, we are playing God, or taking over the role of Mother Nature. Critics feel that by manipulating genes, we are going against God, and his plan for each individual person. Opponents of this new technology feel that by manipulating a person's genes we are going against God, and his divine plan (Gardner). Another reason many people oppose genetic engineering is because they fear that someone will attempt to create a super race, by manipulating genes. Many people are still devastated by the actions of Adolph Hitler, and his attempt to create a superior human race of blond hair, blue-eyed children. With the new technology of genetic engineering, this could be possible. In the future, it is believed that we will be able to choose the hair, eye, and skin color of our children, if this is possible, then it would be completely logical to fear such a

Negative Health Effects of Global Warming

Negative Health Effects of Global Warming Climate change driven by global warming is a reality; the health effects which can be attributed to the changes are measurable and increasing in severity. The World Health Organization reports that between 2030 and 2050, climate change is likely to cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea, and heat stress. Key Takeaways: The Health Effects of Global Warming Health effects of climate change have been recorded and are being actively studied in five areasClimate change indicators include sea level rise of 7 inches since 1918, global temperature of 1.9 degrees F higher than in 1880  More than 4,400 people have already been displaced by climate changesHeat waves and other weather-related events are increasing Climate Change and Health According to the United States NASA, in 2019, the global temperature was 1.9 degrees Fahrenheit higher than it was in 1880: 18 of the 19 warmest years since then have occurred since 2001. The global sea level has risen 7 inches in since 1910, a fact which is directly attributable to the rise in ambient and sea surface temperature leading to the shrinking of glacial ice at the poles and in the tops of the highest mountains.   In 2016, the British scientific/medical journal The Lancet announced the Lancet Countdown, an ongoing study to be written by  an international team of researchers tracking climate change and its health impacts, as well as supporting efforts to ease the associated problems. In 2018, the Countdowns groups of scientists were focused (in part) on five health-related aspects: health effects of heat waves; change in labor capacity; the lethality of weather-related disasters; climate-sensitive diseases; and food insecurity.   Health Effects of Heat Waves   Heat waves are defined as a period of more than three days during which the minimum temperature is greater than the minimum recorded between 1986 and 2008. The minimum temperatures were chosen as measures because coolness in the overnight hours is a vital component helping vulnerable people recover from the heat of the day. Four billion people live in hot areas worldwide and are expected to experience significantly reduced work capacity as a result of global warming. Health impacts of heat waves range from a direct increase in heat stress and heat stroke to impacts on pre-existing heart failure and acute kidney injury from dehydration.  Elderly people, children younger than 12 months, and people with chronic cardiovascular and renal disease are particularly sensitive to these changes. Between 2000 and 2015, the number of vulnerable people exposed to heatwaves increased from 125 million to 175 million. Changes in Labor Capacity   Higher temperatures pose profound threats to occupational health and labor productivity, particularly for people undertaking manual, outdoor labor in hot areas. Increased temperature makes it more difficult to work outside: the global labor capacity in rural populations decreased by 5.3 percent from 2000 to 2016.  The level of heat impacts health as a side effect of the damage incurred to peoples economic well-being and livelihoods, particularly on those who rely on subsistence farming. Lethality of Weather-Related Disasters   A disaster is defined as either 10 or more people killed; 100 or more people affected; a state of emergency is called, or a call for international assistance is made. Between 2007 and 2016, the frequency of weather-related disasters such as floods and droughts has increased by 46 percent, compared to the average between 1990 and 1999. Fortunately, mortality of these events has not increased, due to better reporting times and better-prepared support systems.   Climate-Sensitive Diseases   There are several diseases which are considered sensitive to climate change, falling into the categories of vector-borne (diseases transmitted by insects such as malaria, dengue fever, Lyme disease, and plague); water-borne (such as cholera and giardia); and airborne (such as meningitis and influenza). Not all of these are currently on the rise: many are being effectively treated by available drugs and health services, although that may not continue as things evolve. However, the cases of dengue fever have doubled every decade since 1990, and there were 58.4 million apparent cases in 2013, accounting for 10,000 deaths. Malignant melanoma, the least common but most lethal of cancers, has also been steadily rising over the past 50 years- annual rates have risen as rapidly as 4–6 percent in fair-skinned people.   Food Security   Food security, defined as the availability and access to food, has decreased in many countries, particularly those in East Africa and Southern Asia. Global wheat production drops 6 percent for every 1.8 degree Fahrenheit rise in growing season temperatures. Rice yields are sensitive to overnight minimums during the growing season: an increase in 1.8 degrees means a decrease of 10 percent of rice yield.   There are one billion people on earth who rely on fish as their principal source of protein. Fish stocks are declining in some regions as a result of sea surface temperature rise, salinity increases, and harmful algal blooms.   Migration and Population Displacement   As of 2018, 4,400 people have been displaced from their homes solely as a result of climate change. Those include Alaska, where over 3,500 people had to abandon their villages because of coastal erosion, and in the Carteret Islands of Papua New Guinea, where 1,200 people left because of sea level rise. That has health impacts on mental and physical health of individuals within those communities, and in the communities where the refugees end up.   That is expected to increase, as the sea level rises. In 1990, 450 million people lived in regions that were below 70 feet above sea level. In 2010, 634 million people (about 10% of the global population) lived in areas that are less than 35 feet about current sea level.   Health Effects of Global Warming Hardest on Poor Nations Climate change and global warming are impacting the entire world, but it is particularly hard on people in poor countries, which is ironic because the places that have contributed the least to global warming are most vulnerable to the death and disease higher temperatures can bring. Regions at the highest risk for enduring the health effects of climate change include coastlines along the Pacific and Indian oceans and sub-Saharan Africa. Large sprawling cities, with their urban heat island effect, are also prone to temperature-related health problems. Africa has some of the lowest per-capita emissions of greenhouse gases. Yet, regions of the continent are gravely at risk for diseases related to global warming. Global Warming is Getting Worse Scientists believe that greenhouse gases will increase the global average temperature by approximately 6 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century. Extreme floods, droughts and heat waves are likely to strike with increasing frequency. Other factors such as irrigation and deforestation can also affect local temperatures and humidity. Model-based forecasts of health risks from global climate change project that: Climate-related disease risks of the various health outcomes assessed by WHO will more than double by 2030.Flooding as a result of coastal storm surges will affect the lives of up to 200 million people by the 2080s.Heat-related deaths in California could more than double by 2100.Hazardous ozone pollution days in the Eastern U.S. could increase 60 percent by 2050. Selected Sources Abel, David W., et al. Air-Quality-Related Health Impacts from Climate Change and from Adaptation of Cooling Demand for Buildings in the Eastern United States: An Interdisciplinary Modeling Study. PLOS Medicine 15.7 (2018): e1002599. Print.Costello, Anthony, et al. Managing the Health Effects of Climate Change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission. The Lancet 373.9676 (2009): 1693–733. Print.Gasparrini, Antonio, et al. Projections of Temperature-Related Excess Mortality under Climate Change Scenarios. The Lancet Planetary Health 1.9 (2017): e360–e67. Print.Kjellstrom, Tord, et al. Heat, Human Performance, and Occupational Health: A Key Issue for the Assessment of Global Climate Change Impacts. Annual Review of Public Health 37.1 (2016): 97–112. Print.Mora, Camilo, et al. Broad Threat to Humanity from Cumulative Climate Hazards Intensified by Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Nature Climate Change 8.12 (2018): 1062–71. Print.M yers, Samuel S., et al. Climate Change and Global Food Systems: Potential Impacts on Food Security and Undernutrition. Annual Review of Public Health 38.1 (2017): 259-77. Print. Patz, Jonathan A., et al. Impact of Regional Climate Change on Human Health. Nature 438.7066 (2005): 310–17. Print.Patz, Jonathan A., et al. Climate Change and Global Health: Quantifying a Growing Ethical Crisis. EcoHealth 4.4 (2007): 397–405. Print.Scovronick, Noah, et al. The Impact of Human Health Co-Benefits on Evaluations of Global Climate Policy. Nature Communications 10.1 (2019): 2095. Print.Watts, Nick, et al. The Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change: From 25 Years of Inaction to a Global Transformation for Public Health. The Lancet 391.10120 (2018): 581–630. Print.Wu, Xiaoxu, et al. Impact of Climate Change on Human Infectious Diseases: Empirical Evidence and Human Adaptation. Environment International 86 (2016): 14–23. Print.

Textual analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Textual analysis - Essay Example (Forche, 597) From the few descriptions, these are just dead giveaways, and a visit will not be a pleasant one. Midway through the text, the author is seen been cruel to the parrot commanding it to shut up, as it storms away from the room. The Colonel returns to the room, with a grocery sack with him, but this time it is not full of groceries. It is filled with lots of chopped human ear – a horrific sign of lost lives. By now, the Colonel is seen being furious at the Americans, and those who threaten to expose human rights injustices. While the reader is still left in shock, suffocating from the graphic atmosphere of the text, it ends with the ear proverbially coming back to life. This implies that it is somehow able to behold Colonel’s crimes. Right from the text’s title, â€Å"The Colonel†, one could tell that the poem would be about a man of high stature. Most particularly, about a person who is not going to allow you to forget that he is above everybody. Although, it is quite surprising that the Colonel does not get a name, and he is just being referred by his title. The author has tactfully used this approach, perhaps, to make the Colonel power look more generic. Forche strategically referred him as â€Å"the Colonel†, to mean that the Colonel was callous. However, the reference to the character’s position implies that the character is acting in the role of power, without any physical description. In this manner, the text’s title reminds the reader that we are not dealing with one callous leader, but rather the whole system structure, which would put people’s lives under one person with the power to harass them. Back to the poem, the beginning of the text has started by describing the Colonel’s family atmosphere. This includes his wife, daughter and his son’s normal day activities. Because at the end of the day, all the family’s member can stay together, so at the start

Racism White Privileges and Stereotypes Research Paper

Racism White Privileges and Stereotypes - Research Paper Example The white privilege has conventionally played a big role in the success of white people in the USA in many walks of life. White privilege has provided people with opportunity to seek admission into the graduate schools in preference to the people of color. White privilege has helped the white students acquire national grants and scholarships for continuing higher studies while there have been more capable students of color that had also applied, but were not granted the scholarships. In the workplace, white privilege has been the cause of promotion for certain employees in presence of equally skilled and talented employees of color in the organization. History of White Privilege Around the early 1600s, 50 rich white people had got financial interests in the land in Virginia along with the Virginia Company of London. The Englishmen had been provided with the right of ruling the colony. Around the mid 1600s, there were as many as 100 servants for every single gentleman in the new Ameri can colonies. There have been numerous servant revolts in Virginia, at least ten of which have documented evidence. One of the most famous servant revolts that occurred around the mid 1600s was the Bacon’s Rebellion. In the year 1676, the free workers, farmers and servants of both the English and the African race stood up for their rights. They demanded salary and land. It was during the very revolution that Jamestown was burned. At the time of Bacon's Rebellion the English commission of investigation had shown more sympathy with the rebels than with the well-to-do planters who had engrossed Virginia's lands. To have attempted the enslavement of English-born laborers would have caused more disorder than it cured. But to keep as slaves black men who arrived in that condition was possible and apparently regarded as plain common sense. (Morgan, 1972, p. 25). In 1755, the Massachusetts Legislature assigned cost to the Indian scalp in the Bay Colony. The scalp of Indian men was so ld for 40 pounds while that of Indian females and boys below 12 years of age for 20 pounds. The Neutralization Act was passed in 1790. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson had passed the Indian Removal Act. There were several more discriminatory acts that were passed in the years to follow. President Abraham Lincoln brought a revolutionary change by emphasizing upon a need for the Americans to eradicate racial differences among them and categorization of the society on the basis of color or race. â€Å"Let us discard all this quibbling about this man and the other man, this race and that race and the other race being inferior, and therefore they must be placed in an inferior position† (Lincoln cited in Davis and Wilson, 2008, p. 181). Despite his efforts and of many that followed, white privilege has continued to be an integral feature of the culture of the USA to this date. White privilege is frequently reflected in the television programs, both overtly and otherwise. While the re are certain programs which overtly speak of white privilege, there are others which promote white privilege by under-representing it. One such program is the movie Crash that has won the Oscar award. Although apparently the story of Crash tends to reflect the issues and stereotypical images of people belonging to different races, white supremacy is not quite as much represented as it exists in the USA. The movie Crash has a very simple central theme; people belonging

Analysis of Living Standards in the UK

Analysis of Living Standards in the UK Assignment Title: Living Standards The UK in 2013 had a population of approximately 64 million; standards of living are used to monitor and identify which areas of the UK and the world are living in penury and which areas are more affluent and are thriving. The government is responsible for identifying the contributing factors towards a wealthy region or a poor region. Burtless, G (1987, p.232) defines standards of living as â€Å"the sustained level of consumption of goods and services that can be afforded on the basis of a household’s current assets and current and future income†. Economists and economic research companies have tried and tested many different ways to record the standard of living in the UK. Living standards is a hot topic in political conversations, and the government are pressured to focus on improving the well-being of the population. Elliot, L (2014) recent article for the Guardian discusses the views of Andrew Harrop, general secretary of the Fabian Society who exclaims that â€Å"What we measure – and how we measure it – matters. The financial crisis proved that simply targeting the headline goals of GDP growth, unemployment and inflation was totally inadequate as these measures failed to identify major economic weaknesses as they emerged†. This would suggest that the government need to revisit their policy on standards of living on focus on refining them in order to achieve their objectives. Mankiw, N (2011) suggests that policymakers must accumulate factors of production quickly in order to make the population more efficient and more positive. There are many different measures of standard of living that have been developed over the past 30-40 years, there are the more traditional ways of measurement and modern, innovative and experimental measures that are both used in the world of business. Traditional standard of living measures Crafts et al (2007) suggests that historically, standards of living have been measured by assessing real wages. Real wages is the income of a person and with consideration of the inflationary effects on purchasing power. Recent UK and US wage statistics compiled by Branchflower Machin (2014) suggests that after a healthy upwards movement of the average wage in the UK in the 1990’s and early part of the 2000’s; there is an alarming downward trend from the year 2010 to 2013 where wages rates are increasingly lowering. From the graph it is also clear that the US wage growth is very little historically and there are no major fluctuations in comparison to the UK. (See Appendix 1). The Economist (2014) blames the fall in real wages on the UK’s ‘dismal productivity’ since the recession, output in the UK is below the pre-financial crisis peak. This would suggest that Britain needs more highly skilled jobs and possible incentives to boost productivity and create an efficient labour market. Real wages are effective in measuring standards, real wages statistics can be used to identify trends in wages in different countries over a particular period, this is further emphasised by the International Labour Organisation (2003) who suggest that real wages are useful for identifying differences in purchasing power of wages in different world economies, real wages can also provide an idea of the progress of a working population. Nordhaus (1997 p.30) criticises the method of calculating real wages, he states that â€Å"If we are to obtain accurate estimates of the growth of real incomes over the last century, we must some-how construct price indexes that account for the vast changes in the quality and range of goods and services that we consume†. It could be argued that countries such as the US and the UK have already constructed price indexes with the use of the Retail Price Index, the Consumer Price Index in the last century. Another of the more traditional measures of living standards is GDP; the main GDP elements that are important for living standards are GDP per capita and Real GDP per capita. GDP per capita is the total output divided by the population of a country. Recent figures from the ONS (2014) shows a comparison of the top economies in the world of the year 1997 and 2012; from the graph (see Appendix 2) it is clear to see that the UK GDP per capita has risen but not as much in value as the likes of the US, Canada and Germany – the UK still however has the 4th biggest GDP per capita in the world. Nominal GDP per capita is often criticised by economists because it does not take inflation into consideration, so it is better to use Real GDP as the measurement because it is relevant and reflects a true value. Eurostat’s graph (see Appendix 3) shows the year on year growth percentage of real GDP per capita in the UK, the research shows a large dip after the financial crisis and since that has happened the percentage growth rate has never reached the peaks pre-financial crisis, this would suggest that productivity in the UK is low and there needs to be more employment created, which could lead to an increase the output of the country. The main positive of using GDP per capita as a measure is that it is used nationwide and recorded fairly frequently, GDP per capita is measured in quarters and allows countries to evaluate the figures and look at trends over different periods – this is important to identify which countries are trending downwards and is important at a regional level, governments can identify what areas are lacking in output and where investment needs to be focused. Whereas real wages are said to be useful in comparing the difference in wealth in economies International Labour Organisation (2003), Tucker (2013) argues there are several issues when comparing countries using GDP per capita, he suggests that low economically developed countries are not as accurate as wealthier countries when recording the data necessary for GDP. He also suggests that some countries have very different income distribution using the United Arab Emirates as an example; the majority of income comes from oil which is only distributed amongst a number of rich families. Real GDP per capita is important because it can give a true value after inflationary adjustments are made, however this measure also has some limitations. Similarly to GDP per capita, real GDP per capita fails to identify inequalities in income and wealth in a country, there is also the issue of the ‘black market’ which can he hidden amongst the value of real GDP per capita. Another traditional measure of living standards to consider is the Gini coefficient; the Gini index measures the actual distribution income in a country in comparison to an equal distribution of income. The index measures the difference between a Lorenz curve and a line of equality. The Gini index line of 0 represents equality whereas 100 would indicate inequality. The Poverty Site (2010) Gini Coefficient graph (see Appendix 4) shows a comparison of the 27 members of the European Union, at the time the UK figure stood at just over 30% which ranks sixth highest in inequality in Europe and higher than the EU27 average of 30%. The graph also shows how Scandinavian countries such as Sweden Finland have a much more equal society in terms of income despite their questionable taxation policies. The United Kingdom would likely try and target a smaller percentage to achieve better equality amongst the population. Concerns over income inequality have been raised recently. Treanor Farrell (2014) recent article for the Guardian discusses how the UK is the only G7 country with growing inequality, the article discusses findings from a Credit Suisse global wealth report show that the UK’s richest 10% of people represent 54.1% of the total national income. There will be inevitable pressure on the government from low income families that have been suffering from rising utility bills and only a small rise in wages. The Gini Co-efficient is very effective in showing the inequality in countries throughout the world, it can also help economists and businessman understand and support their thinking if they believe the country is increasing in terms of inequality of income. McKinley, T (1995 p.141) writes that â€Å"the Gini coefficient does not concentrate merely on differences from the mean; it is a much more direct measure of inequality because it accounts for the differences between every pair of observations†. The Gini co-efficient isn’t without its limitations, Parrillo (2008) suggests that the measure does not alter much when transfers are made between the rich and the poorer people. Another disadvantage of the Gini coefficient is that it fails to inform you of the changes in the distribution of income between income groups as opposed to alternative measures of living standards. Alternative standard of living measures Throughout the last 20-30 years there have been a number of alternative measures developed across the world, trying to find a better way to measure living standards. The Human Development Index was originally developed by the UN to monitor and develop a ranking of countries by the following criteria; average years of schooling, expected years of schooling, life expectancy from birth and gross national income per capita. From the most recent HDI data (see appendix 5) the United Kingdom ranks at #14 in the top 15, the HDI shows some interesting developments and differences between the nations of the world. The United States for example has a high GNI Per capita compares to other countries, their life expectancy however ranks lower than any other country in the top 15; this could suggest that the United States standard of living is not truly reflected in the HDI. Although the Scandinavian countries rank high on the HDI, Henrietta Moore of The Guardian (2014) argues that they are not the model for global prosperity; she suggests that their principles of autonomy and self determination are the reasons for their high human development. Moore summarises statistics that suggest that the Scandinavian countries are consuming resources far too quickly they rank top of both the carbon emissions usage and they rank high in the WWF’s scale of ecological impact. It could be argued that it is important to consider the environmental impacts of nation’s activities before considering their Human Development ranking. The obvious advantage of the HDI is that it makes it simple to monitor the changes in development of countries over a period of time, it is also effective to use when comparing different countries around the world and how they are developing and which element of the criteria is changing most. There is a drawback to the HDI, Soubbotina Sheram (2000) suggests that it fails to show the significance of the different elements and fails to support why a countries index may have altered over time. It could be argued that the United Nations needs to provide more reasoning and evidence to support changes in figures. Another of the more recent innovative measurements of living standards is the Happy Planet Index developed in 2006; countries are measured on life expectancy, well-being and ecological footprint. Each country is given a particular colour as in the HPI (see Appendix 6) based on their performance; green being good, amber being middle or average, red being bad performance after accumulating the different components for each country. From appendix 6, the countries performing worst are the United States and a lot of African countries including Ethiopia, Kenya and Nigeria. The United Kingdom is ranked in the middle ranking as a result of their poor ecological footprint in which they rank #121 out of the 151 countries. Surprisingly Mexico is one of the best performing countries based on the index ranking 23rd out of 151 with a healthy well-being score. The Happy Planet Index became very popular when it first came out because of the results it produced. Simms Boyle (2009) praises the measure suggesting it is the first measure to combine well-being and environmental impact to find a countries efficiency. A social factor and criticism of the Happy Planet Index is described by Murray, P (2011) he argues that families may find that they do not welcome giving information on personal health to help determine life expectancy and levels of personal health, this suggests that the information for some countries may be inaccurate because a lot of people may have refused to give such sensitive personal information. Another alternative measure which has been viewed as a successor for GDP is the Genuine Progress Indicator, this measure is designed to measure improvements made in economic welfare. GPI takes several factors into consideration including monetary value of voluntary and unpaid work, leisure time. Similarly to the previous measures discussed, GPI takes into consideration income distribution, environmental impacts and state of the environment. The GPI also accounts for the cost of crime in the country being measured. The GPI has been tested across the world in a number of different experiments. Bagstad Shammin (2012) looked at testing different GPI factors in 17 counties in Ohio and compared the results of change from 1990-2005 (see appendix 7), from the table we can see the differences in 15 years in some important factors to the people of Ohio. There have been drastic changes in some factors including net capital investment which is good for the areas because it may improve job prospects. The advantage of GPI in this particular testing process in Ohio is that it combines an element of consumption, GDP per capita and Gini coefficient. The GPI is being used increasingly around the world because it has a number of advantages in comparison to traditional methods such as GDP, the GPI is said to take into consideration negative contributions to growth such as pollution and crime, GPI is effective in measuring people’s living standards and not just a measure of output as is the primary objective of GDP. GPI is much more useful in long term planning than GDP because environmental impacts are taking into consideration and be addressed in the long term. Although GPI takes the value of leisure time and environmental impacts, these factors are very hard to determine a specific value to include in the calculations, GDP per capita in comparison is a much simpler method; GPI is also ineffective in relation to a business cycle. Measures of living standards are ever changing; there may never be a measure more accurate or reliable as another because they all have their criticisms and drawbacks that are fresh within economist’s minds. It is clear that there is a shift of focus from just measuring output of a population through GDP per capita to recognising the issues and factors that affect a population; the alternative measures each focus on social factors such as life expectancy. Rather than looking at just earnings and wages, the newer measures of living standards focus on what is actually relevant to people around the world. GDP per capita and real wages show some difference in the level of wealth and income inequality but it is methods like the Human Development Index which can be used to determine a more global perspective of living standards, to summarise the more traditional methods are useful for measuring the wealth whereas the alternative and more innovative measures focus on the social facto rs that indicate a populations standard of living. Appendices Appendix 1 Source: Branchflower Machin (2014) Appendix 2 Source: ONS (2014) Appendix 3 Yearly change in percentage of Real GDP per capita growth in the UK Source: Eurostat (2014) Appendix 4 Source: The Poverty Site (2010) Appendix 5 HDI Index 2013 top 15 rankings, Source: United Nations Development Programme (2013) Appendix 6 Source: Happy Planet Index (2012) Appendix 7 Source: Bagstad Shammin (2012) Bibliography Bagstad,K, Shammin, R. (2011) ‘Can the Genuine Progress Indicator better inform sustainable regional progress?—A case study for Northeast Ohio’, Ecological Indicators, 18, pp.330-341, Science Direct (Online) Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com.ergo.glam.ac.uk/science/article/pii/S1470160X11003918# (Accessed 22/11/14). Boyle, D., Simms, A. (2009). The New Economics: A Bigger Picture. Oxford: Routledge. Branchflower, D., Machin, S. (2014) ‘Falling real wages’, Paper No CEPCP422, 19 (1) pp. 19-21. CentrePiece (Online). Available at: http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/cp422.pdf (Accessed 17/11/14) Burtless, G (1987). 1st edn. Work, Health and Income among the Elderly. Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution. Crafts, N., Gazeley, I. Newell, A. (2007). Work and Pay in 20th Century Brtiain. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Elliot, L (2014) ‘Living standards should be central measure of UK economic performance’ 12 March (Online) Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/business/2014/mar/12/living-standard-measure-economic-growth (Accessed 16/11/14) Eurostat (2014). Real GDP per capita, growth rate and totals. Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/graph.do?tab=graphplugin=1pcode=tsdec100language=entoolbox=sort. Accessed (17/11/14). Happy Planet Index (2012). HPI 2012: Map View. Available at: http://www.happyplanetindex.org/data/. (Accessed 21/11/14) International Labour Organisation. (2003). 3rd edn. Key Indicators of the Labour Market. Geneva: ILO Publications. Mankiw, N (2011). 6th edn. Principles of Economics. Ohio: South-western publishing. McKinley, T (1995). The Distribution of Wealth in Rural China. Oxford: Routledge. Moore, H (2014). ‘Why Scandinavia is not the model for global prosperity we should all pursue’. 1st December (Online). Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2014/dec/01/why-scandinavia-is-not-the-model-for-global-prosperity-we-should-all-pursue. (Accessed 1/12/14) Murray, P. (2011). The Sustainable Self: A Personal Approach to Sustainability Education. Oxford: Routledge. Nordhaus, W. (1997). P.27-70. The Economics of New Goods. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ONS (2014). The UK has one of the fastest growing economies in the G7. Available at: http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/elmr/gdp-and-the-labour-market/q1-2014may-gdp-update/sty-gdp-g7-economies.html. Accessed (17/11/14). Parrillo, V (2008). Encyclopedia of Social Problems. Washington DC: Sage Publications. Soubbotina, T., Sheram, K. (2000). Beyond Economic Growth: Meeting the Challenges of Global Development. Washington DC: World Bank Publications. The Economist (2014). What recovery? Real wages 413(8910), 32(US). 25th October. Retrieved from: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA387050752v=2.1u=uwcnit=rp=STNDsw=wasid=a520ff594e7283ba19a015fcb5d8e35f (Accessed 17/11/14). The Poverty Site (2010). European Union: Gini Coefficient. Available at: http://www.poverty.org.uk/e14/index.shtml. Accessed (17/11/14). Treanor, J Farrell, S (2014). ‘UK only G7 country with wider inequality than at turn of century’. 14th October (Online). Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/oct/14/uk-inequality-wealth-credit-suisse. Accessed (17/11/14). Tucker, I (2013). Macroeconomics for Today. 8th edn. Ohio: South-western publishing. United Nations Development Programme (2013). Human Development Index and its components. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-components. (Accessed 21/11/14)

Criminal Justice Reform Essay

A. I have a strong proposition for the California Legislature†¦and that is a strict and logical reform to the present Criminal Justice System in California. B. ‘The California Legislature is to be commended for its stance on crime. Not for their ‘get tough’ policies such as the ‘Three Strikes’ law but for their enactment of a little known section of the Penal Code entitled the ‘Community Based Punishment Act of 1994.’ (Senator Quentin Kopp, Time Magazine Feb 14, 1996) C. By passage of this act, the State of California has acknowledged the limitations of incarceration as both punishment and a deterrent to criminal behavior. D. The legislature has in fact declared that ‘California’s criminal justice system is seriously out of balance in its heavy dependence upon prison facilities and jails for punishment and its lack of appropriate punishment for nonviolent offenders and substance abusers who could be successfully treated in appropriate, less restrictive programs without any increase in danger to the public’ II. More facts, Opinions and Developmental Ideas A. In essence, this law proposes a community based system of intermediate restrictions for non-violent offenders that fall between jail time and traditional probation such as home detention with electronic monitoring, boot camps, mandatory community service and victim restitution, day reporting, and others. B. Pilot programs are to be developed as a collaborative effort between the state and counties requiring a community based plan describing the sanctions and services to be provided. C. A progress report on an actof this kind would be made by the California Board of Corrections on January 1, 1997 and annually thereafter to selected legislative committees. III. Informatives A. ‘It seems clear that the California Legislature has determined that incarceration is not appropriate for many criminal offenses and that alternative sanctions are preferable for non-violent offenders. ‘ (Randy Meyer, Political Official) B. But while this approach is to be applauded, its spreading prevents the fulfillment of its true potential. C. ‘By retaining those non-violent offenders that are currently in state prison and continuing to pursue defensive punishment at the local level in the form of short term ‘shock incarceration’ and bootcamps, the costly and ineffective methods of criminal behavior correction remain intact.’ (Charles Calderon-US News) D. By immediately eliminating incarceration for all non-violent offenses and requiring victim compensation and community service, resources can be committed to preventing crime rather than to the feeding and housing of offenders. E. This is consistent with the findings of the legislature and is cost efficient, requires minimal systemic change, and increases public safety and security. IV. The Proposal A. ‘Our current criminal justice system appears to be based upon the Old Testament proverb that ‘your eye shall not pity; it shall be life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot.’ Revenge thus plays a part of the punishment model.’ (LA Official Boland) From a societal standpoint, we expect punishment to prevent the offender and others from further criminal behavior. Incarceration of offenders as the punishment of choice thus theoretically provides revenge, individual  incapacitation, and restriction. But I submit that such a philosophical foundation is flawed. Revenge while understandable from an individual human perspective is not a proper basis for society’s response to the misbehavior of its laws. This human urge to punish should be removed from the current system and replaced with methods of restrictions that utilize the offender’s potential to benefit his victim and society at large. In other words, in a free society the end desired is the correction of behavior that utilizes the least force . This conforms to the principles of limited government, efficiency, reduced cost, and personal freedom as advocated by both liberals and conservatives alike. The basic underlying concept of this proposal is that incarceration should be reserved for those who are violent and thus dangerous to the public. Violent crimes would be defined broadly to include any act or attempt to injure the person of another except by accident. This would therefore range from murder to driving under the influence with current distinctions of misdemeanor and felony offenses remaining in place. The court sentencing procedures would also be modified to exclude incarceration for non-violent crimes with an emphasis on victim restitution and community service. The court would maybe rely on probation reports to provide the necessary offender personal history including employment, job skills (or lack of), and personal resources, e.g. bank accounts, property ownership, etc. Based on this information, the court would apply the appropriate sentence of victim restitution and community service with close monitoring by probation officials. As with all human endeavors, compliance by offenders would most likely not be 100%. The threat of incarceration would have to exist for those failing to submit to or comply with court ordered repayment and public service. Many will not agree with this due to the complexity and in many cases there can be more harm done then it could be beneficial. But for the most part there  is no reason to believe that the failure rate would be any higher under this type of system than is currently the case V. Conclusion This proposal provides a policy alternative to the current criminal justice emphasis on incarceration as punishment. It is based on the premise of effectiveness and cost efficiency with a high regard for individual liberty that is essential to a free society. It moves away from the concept of punishment and focuses on a more functional goal of victim and societal repayment. The proposal offers prevention at the front end rather than repayment at the back end of crime reduction efforts. The advantages of such a system are numerous. One of the most important assets of a revision of this kind is that of allowing for a major change in the criminal justice system with a minimum of disruption to the status quo. Rather than requiring an entire systemic change, this proposal works within the current practices of the court, police, and corrections. Indeed, very few authorized changes would have to be made. Enactment of this proposal would eliminate the need for future bond measures for prison construction. Not only would it save taxpayer money, it would be most advantageous to the remaining employees of the California Department of Corrections by allowing for the closure of outdated and unsafe facilities. In addition, unemployment could be kept to a minimum by offering qualified state correctional officers employment with local law enforcement agencies. It is time now to look beyond revenge and the emotionalism associated with current justice system practices. ‘There is only one practical method of reducing crime and the subsequent public’s fear and that is through a high level of police presence on the street.’ (Randy Meyer, M.A.) In essence, this revision allows for a return of the local neighborhood police officer who is familiar with its residents and business owners. In the final analysis, our very freedom depends on how we treat society’s criminals and misfits. By continuing to create a criminal class that has not been rehabilitated through incarceration, we are ultimately sabotaging our own security. Maybe with this we can have a means of reversing the trend of incarceration as punishment while increasing our personal safety and diminishing the fear that is rampant among us. QUICK FACTS *The current California prison population is 135,133 and is expected to increase to about 148,600 by June 30,1996 per the California Department of Corrections. *42.1% of these inmates are incarcerated for violent offenses, 25.3% for property offenses, 26.2% for drugs, and 6.4% for other. *Average yearly cost: per inmate, $21,885 and per parolee, $2,110. *California Department of Corrections budget for 1995-1996: $3.4 billion; proposed budget for 1996-1997 for both Corrections and Youth Authority: $4.1 billion. This compares to $1.6 billion for community colleges and $4.8 billion for higher education. *California Legislative Analysist Elizabeth Hill advised on February 26, 1996 that 24 new prisons will need to be built by the year 2005 to keep pace with the incarceration rate. This will cost taxpayers $7 billion for their construction and increase operating costs to $6 billion annually. *California Attorney General Dan Lungren announced on March 12, 1996 that the number of homicides reported in 1995 in the most populated two-thirds of the state had declined 3.1%, rape 3.9%, robbery 7.9%, aggravated assault 4.2%,  burglary 8.9%, and vehicle theft, 11.4% (San Jose Mercury News, 3/13/96). This is consistent with a 5% decline in the national violent crime rate for the first half of 1995 per the FBI. MANUSCRIPT An analysis of Department of Corrections data by the Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice in San Francisco, CA, in Nov, 1995 indicates that since the enactment of California’s ‘Three Strikes’ law two years ago, 192 have ‘struck out’ for marijuana possession, compared to 40 for murder, 25 for rape, and 24 for kidnapping. I have a strong proposition for the California Legislature†¦and that is a strict and logical reform to the present Criminal Justice System in California. ‘The California Legislature is to be commended for its stance on crime. Not for their ‘get tough’ policies such as the ‘Three Strikes’ law but for their enactment of a little known section of the Penal Code entitled the ‘Community Based Punishment Act of 1994.’ (Senator Quentin Kopp, Time Magazine Feb 14, 1996). By passage of this act, the State of California has acknowledged the limitations of incarceration as both punishment and a deterrent to criminal behavior. The legislature has in fact declared that ‘California’s criminal justice system is seriously out of balance in its heavy dependence upon prison facilities and jails for punishment and its lack of appropriate punishment for nonviolent offenders and substance abusers who could be successfully treated in appropria te, less restrictive programs without any increase in danger to the public’ In essence, this law proposes a community based system of intermediate restrictions for non-violent offenders that fall between jail time and traditional probation such as home detention with electronic monitoring,  boot camps, mandatory community service and victim restitution, day reporting, and others. Pilot programs are to be developed as a collaborative effort between the state and counties requiring a community based plan describing the sanctions and services to be provided. A progress report on an actof this kind would be made by the California Board of Corrections on January 1, 1997 and annually thereafter to selected legislative committees. ‘It seems clear that the California Legislature has determined that incarceration is not appropriate for many criminal offenses and that alternative sanctions are preferable for non-violent offenders. ‘ (Randy Meyer, Political Official). But while this approach is to be applauded, its spreading prevents the fulfillment of its true potential. ‘By retaining those non-violent offenders that are currently in state prison and continuing to pursue defensive punishment at the local level in the form of short term ‘shock incarceration’ and bootcamps, the costly and ineffective methods of criminal behavior correction remain intact.’ (Charles Calderon-US News). By immediately eliminating incarceration for all non-violent offenses and requiring victim compensation and community service, resources can be committed to preventing crime rather than to the feeding and housing of offenders. This is consistent with the findings of the legislature and is cost efficient, requires minimal systemic change, and increases public safety and security. ‘Our current criminal justice system appears to be based upon the Old Testament proverb that ‘your eye shall not pity; it shall be life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot.’ Revenge thus plays a part of the punishment model.’ (LA Official Boland). From a societal standpoint, we expect punishment to prevent the offender and others from further criminal behavior. Incarceration of offenders as the punishment of choice thus theoretically provides revenge, individual incapacitation, and restriction. But I submit that such a philosophical foundation is flawed. Revenge while understandable from an individual human perspective is not a proper basis  for society’s response to the misbehavior of its laws. This human urge to punish should be removed from the current system and replaced with methods of restrictions that utilize the offender’s potential to benefit his victim and society at large. In other words, in a free society the end desired is the correction of behavior that utilizes the least force . This conforms to the principles of limited government, efficiency, reduced cost, and personal freedom as advocated by both liberals and conservatives alike. The basic underlying concept of this proposal is that incarceration should be reserved for those who are violent and thus dangerous to the public. Violent crimes would be defined broadly to include any act or attempt to injure the person of another except by accident. This would therefore range from murder to driving under the influence with current distinctions of misdemeanor and felony offenses remaining in place. The court sentencing procedures would also be modified to exclude incarceration for non-violent crimes with an emphasis on victim restitution and community service. The court would maybe rely on probation reports to provide the necessary offender personal history including employment, job skills (or lack of), and personal resources, e.g. bank accounts, property ownership, etc. Based on this information, the court would apply the appropriate sentence of victim restitution and community service with close monitoring by probation officials. As with all human endeavors, compliance by offenders would most likely not be 100%. The threat of incarceration would have to exist for those failing to submit to or comply with court ordered repayment and public service. Many will not agree with this due to the complexity and in many cases there can be more harm done then it could be beneficial. But for the most part there is no reason to believe that the failure rate would be any higher under this type of system than is currently the case This proposal provides a policy alternative to the current criminal justice  emphasis on incarceration as punishment. It is based on the premise of effectiveness and cost efficiency with a high regard for individual liberty that is essential to a free society. It moves away from the concept of punishment and focuses on a more functional goal of victim and societal repayment. The proposal offers prevention at the front end rather than repayment at the back end of crime reduction efforts. The advantages of such a system are numerous. One of the most important assets of a revision of this kind is that of allowing for a major change in the criminal justice system with a minimum of disruption to the status quo. Rather than requiring an entire systemic change, this proposal works within the current practices of the court, police, and corrections. Indeed, very few authorized changes would have to be made. Enactment of this proposal would eliminate the need for future bond measures for prison construction. Not only would it save taxpayer money, it would be most advantageous to the remaining employees of the California Department of Corrections by allowing for the closure of outdated and unsafe facilities. In addition, unemployment could be kept to a minimum by offering qualified state correctional officers employment with local law enforcement agencies. It is time now to look beyond revenge and the emotionalism associated with current justice system practices. ‘There is only one practical method of reducing crime and the subsequent public’s fear and that is through a high level of police presence on the street.’ (Randy Meyer, M.A.) In essence, this revision allows for a return of the local neighborhood police officer who is familiar with its residents and business owners. In the final analysis, our very freedom depends on how we treat society’s criminals and misfits. By continuing to create a criminal class that has not  been rehabilitated through incarceration, we are ultimately sabotaging our own security. Maybe with this we can have a means of reversing the trend of incarceration as punishment while increasing our personal safety and diminishing the fear that is rampant among us.

Hide and seek by Vernon Scannell Essay

‘Hide and seek’ by Vernon Scannell is about a young, excitable infant playing the childhood game of hide and seek. It begins by revealing the juvenile excitement experienced by a child when playing a game – ‘Call out. Call loud: I’m ready! Come and find me!’ Through the poets use of exclamation marks we can see the child’s joy at partaking in the game. It is exhilarating and fun time for the child, but it is also very competitive. The manner in which he hides shows this competitiveness; he meticulously hides under dirty sacking in the garden shed and makes sure that his feet aren’t ‘sticking out’ . Also when his friends are seeking him, they are portrayed as ‘prowling in’, and ‘whispering at the door’. This further intensifies the degree of competitiveness within the game. However he is determined to win the game, and after a lengthy space of time he thinks, ‘It is time to let them know that you’re the winner’. By know the child is supremely confident that he has emerged the victor, however it only exaggerates his betrayal and feeling of abandonment when he finds out the truth. Finally when the boy victoriously emerges from his hiding place, and shouts ‘I’ve won, I’ve won! Here I am!’ he is greeted by a scene of nothingness -‘The darkening garden watches. Nothing stirs’. His childish dreams of a grand procession in his honour are dashed immediately, and we begin to sympathise with the boy as he tragically realises that he has been betrayed and deserted by his friends. The most important theme explored in ‘Hide and seek’ is the individual status of one human being. The poem asks the contentious question, how much do we really matter? The poet divulges into this topic and comes to the conclusion that we are not individually important in the wider scheme of things than we think. ‘Half-past Two’ by U.A. Fanthorpe concentrates more on the idea of time and the ways in which it governs society. The poem revolves around a child being  punished for doing ‘Something Very Wrong’. The use of capital letters gives the impression that the act committed must have something very serious, and also describes the angered tone of voice that the teacher may have used when admonishing him. However the next line contrasts sharply with these thoughts by saying – ‘(I forget what it was)’. The punishment given by the teacher is to make him stay in the ‘schoolroom till half-past two’. However, the words ‘half-past two’ are meaningless to the boy because ‘She hadn’t taught him Time’, and he was too scared to remind her of that. The boy is always respectful towards the teacher, and their social difference is exaggerated by the capital letter at the beginning of the word ‘She’. The teacher is perceived as a god-like figure to the boy, who has no power or say in any of her imperatives. The unfortunate boy has no comprehension of time and therefore ‘half-past two’ is double-dutch to him. The boy’s definition of time comes from aspects of his own family life – ‘Timeformykisstime’, ‘Gettinguptime’ and ‘TVtime’. The child, although not pre-linguistic, is not practiced in the use of regular time and hence must use time by thinking of things connected with it. His compound ‘time-words’ shows his inability to associate with the ‘alien’ abstract time that the adults in his environment repeatedly use. As a result, he does not know when it is time for him to leave the schoolroom to return home. This causes him to forget that time exists, and he begins to dream about the ‘smell of old chrysanthemums’ and ‘the air outside the window’. This is a typical example of an epiphany, where the boy becomes unimpeded by the constraints of time, shown by the use of the words ‘into ever.’ He is liberated by the bounds of time for a short while, that is until his startled teacher returns to find him still there. The teacher is profusely apologetic and tells him that he can go home. The ensuing stanza is probably the most important – ‘And he never forgot how once by not knowing time/He escaped into the clockless land of ever/ Where time hides tick-less waiting to be born. A feeling of reminiscence is shown by the use of the words ‘he never forgot.’ The ending is particularly affirmative as it shows the happiness felt by the boy as his imagination runs wild and he eludes time into the ‘clockless land of ever.’ The most pertinent theme explored in ‘Half-past Two’ is that of time, and the way it governs our lives. The poem is articulates the adversities of time and contrasts it with the liberty and bliss experienced by the boy when he was freed from time. The cruel aspect is that all human beings eventually run out of time; we get old, lonely and eventually die due to time. Isolation is a major theme within both poems because it affects both boys concerned in a different but dominant way. The child in ‘Hide and Seek’ is purposefully forgotten and is left alone to his own senses: ‘floor is cold’. Isolation is a key element in ‘Half-past two’ because the child in question is forgotten about in detention and he begins to reverie in his own world. It is a more commanding theme in ‘Hide and Seek’ because of the harsh nature in which the boy is abandoned. One of the most foremost similarities in themes between the two poems is that they both concentrate profoundly on greater social forces. This is seen by the use of the words ‘She’ in ‘Half-past two’ and ‘They’ in ‘Hide and Seek’. The boy in ‘Half-past two’ is completely controlled by his authoritative teacher; and one may argue that the ‘prowling’ and ‘whispering’ are quite threatening thus causing the boy to hide because of his fear of society, not simply because he is playing a game. Time is a comparable theme explored in both poems, but more so in ‘Half-past two’. In ‘Hide and Seek’, time symbolically passes to show the transition of friendship to loneliness; and ‘Hide and Seek’ discusses how the world is restrained by the limits of time.